This panel examines religious transformations and interactions in early China.
黃敬家(JING-JIA HUANG)
Department of Chinese, National Taiwan Normal University, Professor
题目：
婦女與宗教：宋代禪修女性從官宦世家到女中丈夫的轉變
摘要：
在中國佛教各宗派中，禪宗持有較為平等的性別態度，對女性的覺悟能力給予完全的肯定。然而，即使禪宗明確地聲稱覺性沒有生理性別之差，實際史料卻仍是以男性禪師為主，其中零星的女性禪修者的紀錄顯得格外珍貴。禪宗燈錄中雖然出現過唐代禪尼的身影，但她們僅是男性禪師傳記中的一段經歷。相對地，宋代禪尼在禪宗燈錄中有了獨立的傳記和明確的傳承法系，雖人數仍然不多，但有更多的禪門女性身影是被記錄在禪門筆記中。因此，本文從宋代禪門燈錄包括《嘉泰普燈錄》、《聯燈會要》、《五燈會元》，以及禪門筆記包括《羅湖野錄》、《雲臥紀談》、《宗門武庫》、《叢林盛事》、《枯崖漫錄》等所見的禪門女性修行者，來探究這些女性禪師的參學悟道過程及傳法活動，了解她們的生活樣貌，及其在禪門系譜中的地位。她們當中多有出身於士大夫官宦世家，乃至有出身皇家后宮者，她們多在生前已獲得禪師的印證，在燈錄譜系中有明確的傳承法系，擅於以詩偈傳達悟境，他們在傳法或與男性禪師逗機往來時，展現超越性別外相的悟力。透過本研究一方面可以建構宋代女性禪師的身影，以見女性禪修者獨立的人格與智慧典型。一方面有助於了解女性在宋代禪門的處境和貢獻，建構宋代禪門女性的歷史。
Elsa Cuillé
University of Strasbourg, Ph.D Candidate
Title:
Possessed by Spirits: Identities and Functions of Mediums in Tang China (618-907)
Abstract:
In short stories written or collected during the Tang dynasty (618-907), there are mentions of people whose bodies were used by spirits to convey words or actions. They were called by many names, but for the sake of clarity we will use the etic term “medium”, although the variety of emic names will also be addressed. Mediums can be defined by their association with spirit possession as a form of religious phenomenon. This paper will focus on gaining a better understanding of who these mediums were and what role they played in Tang dynasty Chinese society. This paper will start by addressing the methodological issues related to the study of less documented Chinese religious phenomena, especially when it comes to the Tang dynasty. The study of mediums in the medieval period faces a few obstacles First, there is a lack of reliable and direct sources. Second, it is difficult to identify certain situations as involving mediums. Finally, there is often no direct mention of possession, and the spirits seem to speak more than once without a clear intermediary. Then, using examples from anecdotes collected in the Taiping guangji 太平廣記 and dated to the Tang dynasty, I will question the identities and functions of the medium in Tang society. These questions will include whether the medium was a trained professional or an ordinary layman, whether he belonged to the elite or to the common people, and whether he was identified as a man or a woman. The type of spirit possession described will also be analyzed, as it may be spontaneous or induced. The rituals surrounding the possession (before, during and after) also provide information about the phenomenon and its actors. The behavior of the medium also varies; some transmit words of the entity possessing them, others do not. These words may be spoken or written in ordinary or special languages and scripts. In addition, the spirit that possesses the medium's body can be classified as benevolent or malevolent, and the interaction between the possessing entity and the rest of human society, especially the witnesses, can be positive or negative. With this paper, I hope to address a topic that is still understudied in the field of religious history, especially when it comes to religious actors in the Tang dynasty. This work may shed more light on the religious practices and actors of medieval Chinese society, as well as raise questions regarding gender and class.
Meng Wang
Department of philosophy, Renmin University of China, Ph.D Candidate
题目：
從無明到戲論——龍樹對「緣起論」從本體論到認識論的解釋方法之轉變
摘要：
一直以來，龍樹都被看作是佛教思想的革新者，因其中觀學說的成立，佛教內部出現了部派佛教與大乘佛教的根本分野。龍樹為了防止有部學說基於「假必依實」的「本體論」準則來理解「緣起論」造成的種種過失，從「認識論」的角度重新理解緣起論，不僅徹底貫徹了緣起理則，而且使得緣起論更具語言哲學的意涵。而實現此種革新的核心路徑在於引入「戲論」這一重要概念，代替原先居於首要位置的「無明」，重構了認識論視角下的緣起鏈條，即戲論——分別——煩惱、業。此種路徑實現了對緣起論的解釋方法從本體論到認識論的轉變，是龍樹對於佛教核心理論「緣起論」的一次既重理性又重實修的成功拓展。
István Olajos
Eotvos Lorand University, Ph.D candidate
Title:
Hostility, Heated Debates and Silent Thievery – The Thousand Faces of Vivid Religious Interaction in Early Medieval China Recorded in the Shamanic Stories of the Taiping Encyclopedias
Abstract:
The main objective of the recent paper is to offer an in-depth analysis of the development of religious life in early medieval China, focusing on the role of Chinese shamans (wu 巫) and their practices (wushu 巫術).
A key element of the author's study is the investigation of how shamanism persisted beyond the Han 漢 era (after-220 AD), along with an exploration of the various activities and rituals associated with wu that are depicted in later sources from the Song dynasty 宋朝 (960–1276). These source materials, i.e. encyclopedia Taiping yulan 太平御覽 and Taiping guangji 太平廣記, are dating back to the 10th century, and provide a unique advantage over other contemporary works: they preserve numerous accounts from the examined era that cannot be found in any other sources. Another important aspect of the analysis is an examination of the relationship between shamanism and the new religious movements emerging in the religious landscape of medieval China. Two major religious organizations, Buddhism and Taoism, are highlighted in this paper as they began their proselytizing activities during the same era and thus interacted not only with shamanism but also with one another.
A thorough examination of the rich source material in the Taiping encyclopedias provide us vital information about Chinese shamanism in the post Han period: first, the persona of wu and its shamanic activities did not disappear with the fall of the Han Dynasty, moreover it played an important part in people’s life in the turbulent historical period. Second, a categorization of shamanic activities emerges based on the application of wu techniques, depending on whether the shaman served at the imperial court, in rural areas, or during wartime.
Surprisingly, Buddhism and Taoism did not only see shamanism as a competitor and a collection of heretical practices, but in order to attract more followers, they often adopted various techniques from the wu. This religious rivalry and "thievery" are well-documented in the encyclopedias Taiping yulan and Taiping guangji. As for Buddhism, the stories often feature monks with supernatural abilities, who are portrayed as more effective healers than shamans. The tales also expose the negative karmic consequences (bao 報) associated with shamanic activities, which were often linked to Taoist practices. In the case of Taoism, it is generally observed that their main goal was to reform their system of activities and to minimize similarities to shamanistic techniques as much as possible.
Thus, the analysis of these stories offers a deeper understanding of the formation, relationships, and interactions among early medieval religious organizations. Moreover, it provides evidence for the continuity of shamanic activities during this period, which is often overlooked by scholars.
